The finale: reflecting back

© Mark Ollig

My mother once told me, “Mark, as you get older, time goes by faster.”

She was right.

As we conclude 2023, let’s revisit some articles published this year.

“100-Year-Old Predictions” – Jan. 6.

On Jan. 1, 1923, the Minnesota Daily Star printed an article predicting military advancements for 2023, including vertical takeoff aircraft and encrypted radio communication.

Major General Edward F. McGlachlin envisioned using submersibles and “flying tanks” by 2023.

“The Theatrophone Visits the US” – Jan. 20.

In May 1898, the New York Telephone Company introduced a theatrophone system with five New York City theaters wired to a switchboard.

This allowed people attending the New York City Electrical Show at Madison Square Garden to enjoy stereophonic musical performances over telephones.

In 1881, Clément Ader pioneered this technology for the theatrophone system in Paris, France, transmitting live entertainment through telephone lines.

The theatrophone was eventually replaced due to the increasing popularity of radio broadcasting.

“An Interview with ChatGPT” – Feb. 3.

ChatGPT, powered by GPT (Generative Pre-trained Transformer), is an interactive artificial intelligence language model and a form of natural language processing (NLP) software designed to facilitate human-like conversations.

During my online interview with ChatGPT, we discussed its interactions with humans and how it processes requests for information.

I noted individuals should independently fact-check and ensure the accuracy of information obtained from ChatGPT or any AI model.

“Launch of the first 3D-printed rocket” – March 31.

Relativity Space launched Terran 1, the world’s first 3D-printed rocket.

Around 85% of its components consisted of metal alloys, and it was made using the world’s largest 3D metal printer, Stargate.

Unfortunately, it crashed into the Atlantic Ocean due to engine failure.

“Washington–Moscow Direct Communications Link” – April 21.

Established in 1963, the “red telephone” or “hotline” was a secure and direct communication link between the United States and the Soviet Union for quickly resolving misunderstandings or unintentional military escalations.

The hotline contributed significantly to global security and stability during the Cold War era.

“Minnesotan ‘fueled’ Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo” – May 5.

Robert Rowe Gilruth, born Oct. 8, 1913, in Nashwauk was a prominent figure in NASA’s space exploration efforts.

He was integral to the United States’ early human spaceflight programs and oversaw the Apollo 11 mission.

“Pocket radio memories” – June 23.

In the 1960s, I bought a Channel Master six-transistor pocket-sized AM radio.

Writing this column brought back many nostalgic memories, reminding me of one of my earliest experiences with electronic technology.

“The Brownie camera” – July 28.

Joseph Nicéphore Niépce took the first photograph in 1826.

George Eastman transformed photography with the Kodak box camera, making it accessible to the general public sixty-two years later.

The Brownie, a photographic camera invented by Frank A. Brownell in 1900, was widely popular and easy-to-operate. Over two million were sold by 1915.

“Pony up to the Hemingray No. 9 insulator” – Aug. 25.

In the early days of outdoor telephone line networks, glass insulators such as the Hemingray No. 9 prevented short circuits and corrosion of the bare metallic wires attached to wooden brackets on telephone poles.

The bulbous glass dome on the insulator resembles a pony’s head.

“The heart of the community” – Sept. 1.

In the early 1900s, small-town telephone switchboards were the primary communication center for communities.

They played a crucial role in developing modern telecommunication networks and were considered the “heart of the community.”

“Antonio Meucci: inventor of the first telephone?” – Sept. 29.

Antonio Meucci’s patent caveat for the telephone expired in 1874, while Alexander Graham Bell was granted a telephone patent in 1876.

Legal battles between Meucci and Bell were resolved in favor of Bell’s patent in 1885.

A 2002 US House Resolution 269 recognized Meucci’s contributions to telephone development.

“Solar system’ time capsule’ brought to Earth” – Oct. 6.

NASA’s OSIRIS-REx spacecraft completed its mission, returning to Earth material from asteroid Bennu, considered a “time capsule” from the solar system’s early days, offering insights into the formation of our planetary system.

The mission also contributed to planetary defense by providing data to assess the asteroid’s orbit and trajectory.

“The original online frontier” – Nov. 24.

The Bulletin Board System (BBS) was created in 1978 by Ward Christensen and Randy Suess as a telephone line dial-up platform for sharing software files and messaging.

The number of BBSes reached around 60,000 in the US by 1994, but declined in the early 2000s as people shifted to commercial internet services and the World Wide Web.

BBSes played an essential role in shaping today’s interconnected world.

“The National Defense Test” – Dec. 8.

On the evening of Thursday, Sept. 12, 1924, the radio broadcast of the National Defense Test took place in Washington, DC, showcasing the effectiveness of radio communications in reaching many people during emergencies.

The radio stations receiving the broadcast were interconnected through the US telephone network.

“The Santa Helper Hotline” – Dec. 22.

In 1955, the “Call Santa” newspaper ad had a misprinted phone number.

Children who dialed the number reached the red hotline phone of the Continental Air Defense Command (CONAD).

North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) continues the tradition started in 1955 by Colonel Harry W. Shoup at CONAD, who decided to provide radar updates on Santa’s journey to children calling in on Christmas Eve.

Happy New Year, everyone.

The Santa Helper Hotline

© Mark Ollig

The North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) will once again be tracking Santa Claus and his reindeer team as they travel around the world this Christmas.

In 1955, NORAD was known as CONAD (Continental Air Defense Command) and was headquartered at Ent Air Force Base in Colorado Springs, CO.

It served as America’s first defense 24/7 against potential long-range bomber threats during the Cold War, as heightened tensions existed between the US and the Soviet Union.

CONAD assisted the US Strategic Air Command in detecting potential surprise attacks.

Its radar remained alert for any nuclear-armed Soviet Union bomber planes flying over the North Pole and approaching the United States through Canada.

In 1955, the Soviet Union was unable to launch a powerful enough rocket with a nuclear warhead to reach the United States — that is, until August 21, 1957, when it successfully tested the R-7 Semyorka, a multi-stage intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM).

CONAD’s primary purpose during this period was to provide enough warning of a Soviet bomber air raid, enabling Strategic Air Command to counterattack before being targeted and destroyed.

In the event of an impending attack, a senior Pentagon official or high-ranking general would contact CONAD using the red hotline telephone.

A Dec. 24, 1955, Colorado Springs morning newspaper advertisement for the Sears, Roebuck, and Co. department store in Colorado Springs, CO, marked the beginning of this story between NORAD and Santa Claus.

The printed ad features the image of a smiling Santa saying, “Hey, kiddies! Call me directly on my ME2-6681 Merry Xmas telephone. Just dial ME2-6681. I will talk to you personally any time day or night.”

However, the newspaper incorrectly printed Santa’s phone number by one digit and instead published the number for the red hotline telephone of the Central Defense Operations Command Center at CONAD.

Of course, you know what happened next.

On Saturday, Dec. 24, 1955, the Central Defense Operations Command Center’s red hotline telephone inside CONAD started ringing.

US Air Force Colonel Harry W. Shoup, a WWII and Korean War veteran, was the operations duty director at CONAD.

All eyes were on Colonel Shoup as he lifted the red phone’s handset.

He believed it to be a call from a high-ranking military official, such as a Joint Chiefs of Staff member or four-star General Earle E. Partridge.

“Yes, sir, this is Colonel Shoup,” he quickly says.

There is only silence on the other end of the telephone line.

“Sir, can you read me, alright?” Colonel Shoup asks.

He hears a small, hesitant child’s voice through the telephone receiver say, “Is this Santa Claus?”

The Colonel stopped for a moment, looking a bit confused.

Thinking it was a prank call, Col. Shoup firmly demands, “Would you repeat that?”

“Is this Santa Claus?” the child says.

Colonel Shoup then carefully looks around the room at the faces in the Central Defense Operations Command Center and loudly says, “Somebody’s playing a joke on me, and this isn’t funny!”

The personnel in the command center conveyed confused expressions, unsure if this was a serious situation or some bizarre joke.

Someone walked up to inform Colonel Shoup that the person on the phone was not a prankster but a child calling the Santa Claus telephone number advertised in the Sears, Roebuck, and Co. newspaper ad.

Colonel Shoup, a father of four, quickly pivots his emotions to a caring dad, and he cheerfully talks to the child as Santa Claus would, saying, “Have you been good this year?”

As soon as the child heard the sound of “Santa,” their spirits were lifted, and they began enthusiastically talking about the presents they hoped to receive for Christmas.

Later, Colonel Shoup spoke with the child’s mother to let her know the gifts the child asked for.

Soon after, the bright red phone rang continuously with excited children wanting to speak with Santa.

Colonel Shoup then had a change of heart and instructed the members of his defense operations center to take on the role of Santa’s helpers whenever a child called.

That’s right, folks. The Continental Air Defense Command hotline was doing double duty as the Santa Helpers hotline.

CONAD’s radar-tracking operations center personnel who took the children’s calls updated them about Santa and his reindeer’s whereabouts using ground radar and the Semi-Automatic Ground Environment Air Defense System (SAGE) computing network.

Since 1955, NORAD has tracked the worldwide Christmas journey of Santa Claus and his reindeer team.

The NORAD Santa Tracker website (https://www.noradsanta.org) features a countdown clock, games, movies, music, and a mobile app to track Santa.

On Sunday, Dec. 24, you can get updates from NORAD on Santa and his reindeer sleigh’s location by calling 1-877-HI-NORAD (1-877-446-6723).

Colonel Harry Wesley Shoup, also known as “the Santa Colonel,” shared NORAD’s role in bringing joy to children worldwide until his passing March 14, 2009, at age 91 in Colorado Springs, CO.

Merry Christmas, everyone.

Colonel Harry Wesley Shoup

'The Super Fight'

© Mark Ollig

During the mid-1960s, Murray Woroner, a radio producer based in Miami, had an idea.

He believed the NCR (National Cash Register) 315 computer could predict the winners between former heavyweight boxing champions if they had fought each other during their primes.

Comprised of three to five cabinets, the NCR 315 is a second-generation digital computer that uses resistor-transistor logic circuits.

The computer memory utilized moderately rigid mylar plastic cartridges measuring 13.5 inches by 3.25 inches.

These cartridges housed magnetic disks coated with a protective film, serving as Card Random Access Memory (CRAM) storage devices.

CRAM technology provided quicker access to data than magnetic tapes and paved the way for modern random-access memory devices.

The NCR 315 console featured 32 indicator lights visually illustrating various system functions, including program execution stages, processing status, memory allocation, and error indications.

In 1967, Murray Woroner created a fictionalized radio boxing series called the “All-Time Heavyweight Championship Tournament.”

Radio stations nationwide broadcast his boxing matches featuring past heavyweight champions competing in an elimination-style tournament.

Before each radio match, we hear enthusiastic crowd chatter, followed by beeps, clicks, and a booming voice declaring: “Computerized!”

“From the magic city, the fun and sun capital of the world, Miami, Florida. Through the incredible speed of the NCR 315 computer, Woroner Productions proudly presents the All-Time Heavyweight Championship Tournament,” announces Murray Woroner.

Cheers could be heard from the crowd as the sportscaster described the scripted boxing action during the radio broadcasts.

Rocky Marciano, the former heavyweight boxing champion, won the tournament, defeating another former heavyweight champion, Jack Dempsey.

In a 15-round elimination match, James J. Jeffries, the heavyweight champion from 1899 to 1905, surprisingly defeated former heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali.

After the radio broadcast, Muhammad Ali filed a $1 million federal court lawsuit against Woroner for “seriously injuring his reputation as a boxer” because of the fictional radio broadcast loss to Jeffries.

Ali agreed to a $10,000 payment to drop the lawsuit and participate in a staged boxing match with Rocky Marciano.

At 27, Ali’s professional boxing record was 29-0; his boxing license and title were revoked after he refused induction into the US Armed Services.

Marciano, 45, had retired from boxing in 1956 with a 49-0 record and agreed to a computer fight with Ali for a slightly higher payment.

Ali and Marciano would meet in a boxing ring and film a choreographed performance, a staged fight, in which both would feign and land light punches against each other for the movie “The Super Fight.”

The NCR 315 computer analyzed data from Ali and Marciano’s professional boxing careers and scripted a simulated match using two programming languages.

COBOL (common business-oriented language) was used for data processing and managing the simulated actions, including tracking punches thrown, landed, blocked, and performance endurance.

FORTRAN (formula translations) is a language known for its mathematical capabilities.

It analyzed the complex round-by-round punch calculations and determined the winner of each round.

Although it wasn’t an actual boxing match for the world’s heavyweight championship, it had all the build-up of one, notably as Ali and Marciano were the only two undefeated champions.

The filming took place inside a private Miami studio warehouse in 1969.

Although Muhammad Ali had not fought since 1967, he appeared in good physical condition.

Marciano had trained hard, lost over 50 pounds, and looked in good shape.

The studio was highly guarded, and inside a boxing ring, the two sparred 70 to 75 one-minute rounds, later interwoven into regulation three-minute rounds for the film.

Murray Woroner and sportscaster Guy LeBow provided commentary on the boxing action. The sounds of the crowd were added to give the impression of being ringside.

For this fight, age differentials were wiped out by the computer; both Ali and Marciano were at their fighting peak.

The film and audio were edited to make the fight appear realistic.

On Jan. 20, 1970, the Minneapolis Star newspaper announced the fight would be shown at 8 p.m. in the St. Paul Armory.

“The Super Fight” was shown in theaters and halls across the United States, Canada, and Europe.

It grossed $5 million ($40.5 million today).

In the ending broadcast to American and Canadian audiences, Rocky Marciano knocked Muhammad Ali out at 57 seconds of the 13th round with two powerful right-hand body blows and a thunderous left hook to the head.

An alternative ending filmed for European audiences has Ali winning when the referee stops the fight due to facial cuts on Marciano at one minute and twenty seconds of the 13th round.

On Jan. 22, 1970, the Minneapolis Tribune reported most people who saw the fight said it was “the best they had seen in years.”

The movie was released four months after Marciano died in a plane crash Aug. 31, 1969, one day before his 46th birthday, and three weeks after filming the final boxing scenes.

Muhammad Ali died June 3, 2016, at 74.

“The Super Fight,” with assistance from a digital computer, created a dream match between two boxing legends from different generations, transcending eras and sparking the imagination.

Watch it at https://tinyurl.com/SuperFight1970.

The National Defense Test

© Mark Ollig

National Defense Day was first celebrated Sept. 12, 1924, to commemorate the World War One Battle of St. Mihiel.

Between Sept. 12 and 15, 1918, Major General John J. Pershing led the European American Expeditionary Forces in a successful offensive in the Saint-Mihiel strategic area in northeastern France, controlled by the German army since 1914.

American and French troops worked together to achieve a significant victory, which marked a critical turning point in World War I.

A few years after World War I ended Nov. 11, 1918, the US War Department recognized the need for a reliable national broadcasting network to communicate with citizens immediately in an emergency.

No nationwide radio broadcasting networks existed in the early 1920s; however, radio transmission was still regarded as the most effective means of instantly reaching the most people.

Although there were some licensed stations, it was mainly unlicensed amateur radio stations transmitting low-powered broadcasts to crystal homemade battery-operated radio receivers.

And so, nearly a century ago, a determined technological and engineering test would take place over a radio broadcasting medium.

The US War Department’s National Defense Test, a coast-to-coast broadcast showcasing radio’s potential for use in an emergency, would coincide with National Defense Day Sept. 12, 1924.

The objective was to demonstrate instant communication to a national radio-listening audience.

AT&T proposed a “chain broadcasting” radio network to transmit government radio broadcasts from Washington, DC, through the nation’s long-distance telephone voice network, which AT&T was still constructing, to specific radio stations for them to broadcast over the air.

This method enabled the best means for efficiently distributing audio content from Washington, DC, to individual radio receiver sets.

Telephone engineers played a crucial role in facilitating the efficient transmission of radio signals across the country’s growing wired telephony infrastructure.

The National Defense Test would see 18 radio stations physically linked across the United States transmit audio from the US War Department through amplitude-modulated signals directly to American radio sets nationwide.

On Sept. 4, 1922, WLAG radio station started broadcasting from the sixth floor of the Oak Grove Hotel in Minneapolis.

Financial challenges forced the station’s closure July 31, 1924; however, WLAG received special permission to turn its equipment and transmitter on again to broadcast the National Defense Day Program.

On Sept. 12, 1924, a National Defense Test radio program was broadcast from the US War Department in Washington, DC, to promote National Defense Day.

Audio communication from the US War Department in Washington, DC, was transmitted via long-distance phone line networks to radio stations, relaying the audio signal to individual radio sets nationwide.

The program featured military-related content such as speeches, music performances, and simulated battle scenarios.

The broadcast raised public awareness for national defense, promoted patriotism, and showcased the military’s use of this nation’s technological capabilities.

Cooperation between engineers and technicians from AT&T, RCA, and independent telephone companies led to installing and testing equipment and telephone line facilities to ensure reliable transmission and reception of radio signals between radio stations relaying the broadcast from Washington, DC.

On Sept. 12, 1924, eighteen radio stations participated in the National Defense Test by broadcasting live voice transmissions from the nation’s capital to individual crystal and battery-powered radio sets.

The participating stations were:

• WCAP in Washington, DC.

• WEAF in New York, NY.

• WJAR in Providence, RI.

• WNAC in Boston, MA.

• WOO in Philadelphia, PA.

• WGY in Schenectady, NY.

• WGR in Buffalo, NY.

• KDKA in Pittsburgh, PA.

• WSB in Atlanta, GA.

• WLW in Cincinnati, OH.

• WGN in Chicago, IL.

• KSD in St. Louis, MO.

• WDAF in Kansas City, MO.

• WLAG in Minneapolis, MN.

• WOAW in Omaha, NE.

• WFAA in Dallas, TX.

• KLZ in Denver, CO.

• KGO in San Francisco, CA.

Almost a hundred years ago, our nation successfully showcased its technological prowess.

Minneapolis Washburn Crosby Company, a flour mill, acquired WLAG’s radio license and, during Oct. 2, 1924, launched WCCO.

Minnesota’s first radio station with a news department, WAMD, began broadcasting June 30, 1925.

NBC and CBS radio began broadcasting in 1926 and 1927, respectively.

In 1928, the radio station WAMD became KSTP.

Television broadcasting soon followed.

On Feb. 21, 1940, Lowell Thomas hosted the first regularly scheduled television news broadcast through experimental NBC television station W2XBS in New York City.

On Sept. 4, 1951, President Harry Truman made the first-ever coast-to-coast television broadcast. According to The New York Times, 94 of the country’s 107 stations aired it in 52 cities.

On the evening of Thursday, Sept. 12, 1924, the radio broadcast of the National Defense Test was recorded by AT&T’s subsidiary, Western Electric, directly from the telephone lines.

The 90-minute high-quality audio recording is preserved in the Internet Archive’s digital library at https://tinyurl.com/radiodefensetest.

One of the founding fathers of AI

© Mark Ollig

John McCarthy, assistant professor of mathematics at Dartmouth College, co-authored a paper titled “A Proposal for the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence” Aug. 31, 1955.

In it, he defined artificial intelligence (AI) as: “The science and engineering of making intelligent machines.”

Inspired by McCarthy’s 17-page paper, the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence conference took place at Dartmouth College in Hanover, NH, during the summer of 1956.

The conference, organized by McCarthy, included leading scientists, mathematicians, and researchers who discussed machines capable of human-like thinking.

Shortly after, artificial intelligence witnessed a surge in activity as researchers sought to develop computer programs that could replicate human intelligence.

In an article published April 16, 1957, in The State Journal newspaper of Lansing, MI. Watson Davis, then-editor of Science Service in Washington, DC, offered his predictions on the potential impact of artificial intelligence in 2000.

“Your grandchildren will probably enjoy artificial intelligence machines, which will do things people do now – write letters, do bookkeeping, translate languages, file and retrieve information, teach students individually, plan and operate factories, cook, serve meals, clean houses, drive automobiles, and fly airplanes,” said Davis, who made this accurate prediction 66 years and seven months ago.

In 1958, while at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), John McCarthy introduced list processing, a programming language enabling the application of mathematical concepts to solve complex programming problems.

List processing is known for its symbolic computation capabilities, which introduced tree data structures and automatic storage management for list manipulation.

This language is valuable for its ability to manipulate code as data, making it a powerful tool for developing complex algorithms.

Although one of the oldest programming languages, list processing is still widely utilized in symbolic computation, functional programming, meta-programming, and modern AI research.

In 1958, John McCarthy introduced a memory management technique known colloquially in the computing world as “garbage collection.”

Initially used with list processing, this technique enables computers to reclaim unused memory automatically, simplifies programming, and efficiently handles extensive memory demands.

McCarthy emphasized that AI systems should incorporate “common sense” to replicate human cognitive reasoning.

He felt AI needed to understand indirect and nuanced language expressions using formal AI logic to arrange rules and principles into a systematic code to equip AI systems to reason and act more like human intelligence.

In 1959, McCarthy developed time-sharing technology, which allowed multiple users to share a single computer.

By 1961, he created the first interactive time-sharing system for software, called the Compatible Time-Sharing System.

McCarthy also predicted cloud computing during the centennial week celebration of MIT April 3 to 10, 1961.

“Computing may someday be organized as a public utility just as the telephone system is a public utility,” McCarthy said.

“Each subscriber needs to pay only for the capacity he actually uses, but he has access to all programming languages characteristic of a very large system. Certain subscribers might offer service to other subscribers. The computer utility could become the basis of a new and important industry,” he stated.

Today’s top three cloud computing platforms are Amazon Web Services, Microsoft Azure, and Google Cloud.

Together, with other public cloud platforms, they generated $526 billion in revenue this year.

In 1990, John McCarthy published a position paper, “Artificial Intelligence, Logical and Formalizing Common-sense.”

McCarthy talks about how we can teach machines to understand concepts that come naturally to humans, but are difficult to explain in a way that computers can understand.

He explained that using mathematical logic is essential in making machines intelligent.

McCarthy suggested an organized approach to integrating encyclopedic, widespread knowledge into a computer, including objects, events, actions, and relationships.

He proposed creating computer programs that could use their acquired knowledge to reason logically, just like humans, so that artificial intelligence could simulate human thinking and decision-making.

Intelligent computing devices need “formal computational logic” to comprehend complex information, connect data, and make educated decisions.

McCarthy’s developments in formal computational logic played a significant role in advancing AI systems, leading to the emergence of sophisticated technologies like Natural Language Processing (NLP).

NLP is an essential branch of AI that uses advanced language analysis techniques to improve information processing and expand decision-making abilities, thereby enhancing AI.

AI technologies like the Chat Generative Pre-Trained Transformer (ChatGPT from OpenAI) use NLP to mimic how humans speak and will respond with “sentence fluency” to our questions and comments.

Large language models (LLMs) are AI systems that process and generate human language using extensive data and complex algorithms.

They are built with deep-learning techniques, mainly neural networks, inspired by the human brain.

LLMs have shown remarkable capabilities in NLP tasks and are used in AI chatbots like ChatGPT, Bard AI, and Bing AI Chat.

NLP and LLMs augment AI to understand and engage in conversations that have us feeling like we are talking with another human being.

American computer scientist John McCarthy, one of the founding fathers of AI, passed away at 84 Oct. 24, 2011.

The orginal online frontier

© Mark Ollig

It was February 1978, and a severe blizzard kept Chicago Area Computer Hobbyists Exchange (CACHE) members from meeting in person.

During this blizzard, two members, Ward Christensen and Randy Suess, created the world’s first public telephone dial-up computer bulletin board system (BBS).

During and after the blizzard, CACHE members dialed into the BBS with their home computers and modems to exchange files and engage in real-time text-based conversations, fostering an online camaraderie despite their physical distance.

Soon, other computer hobbyists were configuring computers with modems and BBS software.

Before the web became widespread, a BBS was the online platform among personal computer users, bridging physical boundaries and fostering virtual communities for discussion, software sharing, camaraderie, and commerce.

In the late 1980s, I read Boardwatch, a popular computing magazine providing in-depth coverage of computer bulletin boards and managing one as a system operator (SysOp).

Many computer hobbyists, including myself, were eager to participate in this new virtual online frontier.

I used Galacticomm’s MajorBBS software, an operating system specifically designed for running bulletin boards.

After installing the software from 3.5-inch disks onto a dedicated computer, I programmed the BBS configuration.

Winsted Bulletin Board System was the name of my BBS and advertised as WBBS: OnLine!

To promote it, I distributed paper flyers, wrote a newspaper article, and installed WBBS license plates on my car - which captured some attention.

WBBS used six analog phone lines connected to six 14.4 kbps Hayes modems configured with the communication protocol: 8 data bits, no parity bits, and one stop bit.

As the SysOp, I maintained the BBS, which handled up to six simultaneous dial-up connections.

Computer users dialed into the BBS using a terminal emulation program with telecommunications software such as ProComm, Kermit, PC-Talk, and Qmodem to access bulletin board systems.

During the early days of the WBBS platform, members participated in real-time texting, exchanged BBS electronic mail, took part in text-based games, polls, and questionnaires, and shared public-domain DOS software.

The virtual chat rooms provided a platform for computer users to spend considerable time discussing current trending topics, building camaraderie, and appreciating the virtual online experience.

Members of WBBS could send and receive internet emails using a batch software program automatically executed from the BBS after midnight via a remote telephone dial-up connection program I used called Unix-to-Unix Copy (UUCP).

The long-distance telecommunications provider, USLink, offered this service, which performed the transfer of internet email for my BBS through their direct internet connection.

Many BBSs used UUCP to handle internet email.

BBSes were developing technologies such as file transfer protocols, message boards, online gaming, email, social media chat rooms, real-time instant messaging, and a virtual community of camaraderie.

Most WBBS members were from the Winsted and Lester Prairie area, as it was a local call to the BBS.

With the popularity of the Windows operating system, Galacticomm subsequently developed a client-server graphical user interface (GUI) BBS version named Worldgroup Server, which I installed.

After downloading the client software, users could connect to the BBS and easily navigate through a colorful hyper-texted Windows graphical user interface using a mouse.

In 1993, I gave a presentation on a specially configured business BBS during the Winsted Civic and Commerce Association business luncheon.

The presentation highlighted the various features of the BBS, including its user-friendly interface and ability to support multiple users.

I used my Hewlett-Packard OmniBook 300 laptop and Dell 486DX2 66 desktop computer for the demonstration.

My Dell desktop computer ran the BBS software program, simulating a business online store, and my OmniBook laptop acted as the customer’s computer used for dialing into the BBS.

Each computer and modem were connected to a dedicated phone line.

During the luncheon, I provided attendees with a live dial-up BBS experience.

I showed how a Bulletin Board System could be used as an e-commerce platform by having online customers use a store menu system, enabling them to browse the product and service information and easily make online purchases.

The luncheon attendees appreciated the BBS’s potential to enhance business communication and serve as a centralized hub for local online business collaboration.

Many walked up to examine the BBS setup and carefully reviewed the computer monitors’ information.

Some dialed into the BBS from the laptop.

The local business community’s interest in the demonstration of the BBS thirty years ago remains in my memory.

According to a report by InfoWorld magazine in 1994, there were around 60,000 BBSes in the US, with approximately 17 million online members.

The following year, the presence of commercial service providers offering low-cost internet and web connectivity and access to a wider range of online services (including commerce) hastened the swift decline of BBSes.

By the early 2000s, the era of large commercial and smaller BBS platforms that once dominated the online landscape ended.

Some BBSes still exist, although they are mainly accessed for nostalgia.

Computer bulletin board systems fostered a culture of online collaboration and communication and laid the foundation for today’s internet-connected world.

Original disk used with my BBS in 1993

One of the paper flyers I distributed in 1993

Recognizing tech pioneers of the internet and web

© Mark Ollig

Since their inception, the internet and the web have undergone an unprecedented evolution, fundamentally transforming communication, information access, and global interaction.

We often take the technology behind them for granted without acknowledging those who made it possible.

Here are some of the key individuals, the tech pioneers who have shaped the internet and web’s digital landscape:

J.C.R. Licklider (1915 to 1990) is often called the “father of the internet.”

His visionary ideas and contributions laid the foundation for the interconnected networks we rely on today.

Licklider envisioned a global computer network that would revolutionize communication and information sharing.

His 1960 article, “Man-Computer Symbiosis,” explored the potential for human-computer interaction, which is increasingly becoming a reality through artificial intelligence (AI).

Paul Baran (1926 to 2011), an engineer at Project RAND, played a crucial role in developing digital packet switching, a fundamental concept underpinning the internet’s architecture.

In his 1964 paper, “On Distributed Communications Networks,” Baran proposed a resilient network design that could withstand disruptions and ensure reliable data transmission.

His ideas were instrumental in shaping the development of the US Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET), the precursor to the modern internet.

Leonard Kleinrock (born 1934) was instrumental in bringing Licklider’s vision to life.

In 1969, Kleinrock and his team at UCLA established the first node of the ARPANET, connecting UCLA with the Stanford Research Institute.

This historic achievement marked the birth of the internet as we know it.

Robert Kahn (born 1938) and Vinton Cerf (born 1943), often referred to as the “fathers of the internet,” collaborated on the development of the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP) into TCP/IP, the underlying protocols that govern communication on the internet.

These protocols have revolutionized communication and information access, enabling seamless connections between computer servers and various electronic devices worldwide.

Peter Kirstein (1933 to 2020), a British computer scientist, was pivotal in developing the pan-European internet backbone, launched in 1992.

He also contributed to standardizing internet protocols and co-authored the TCP/IP specification with Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn.

Kirstein is widely recognized as the “father of the European internet.”

Tim Berners-Lee (born 1955), an English computer scientist, is acknowledged as the inventor of the World Wide Web.

His groundbreaking work at CERN, the European Organization for Nuclear Research, led to the development of the Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), and the Uniform Resource Identifier (URI), the fundamental building blocks of the web.

Berners-Lee’s vision and contributions have transformed the internet into a universal platform for communication, commerce, and education.

Robert Cailliau (born 1947) played an important role in developing the World Wide Web when he joined Berners-Lee at CERN in 1990 and co-created the first web server and web browser, laying the groundwork for the web’s early growth.

Eric Bina (born 1964), a software engineer, and Marc Andreessen (born 1971), a computer scientist, co-created the Mosaic web browser, one of the first web browsers with a user-friendly graphical interface, which the National Center for Supercomputing Applications at the University of Illinois released in January 1993.

Netscape Navigator, co-developed by Marc Andreessen and released in October of 1994 by Netscape Communications Corporation, dominated the web browser market throughout the 1990s.

Radia Perlman (born 1951), often called the “mother of the internet,” contributed significantly to developing network protocols.

In 1985, she created the Spanning Tree Protocol (STP), a crucial algorithm that ensures reliable data transmission in large and complex networks.

Perlman’s work has been instrumental in enabling the efficient and scalable operation of the internet.

Robert Metcalfe (born 1946), along with David Boggs (born 1950), Butler Lampson (born 1943), and Chuck Thacker (1943 to 2017), co-invented Ethernet technology in 1973 at Xerox PARC in Palo Alto, CA.

Ethernet, a groundbreaking wired protocol, revolutionized communication and information sharing by enabling high-speed, high-bandwidth, and reliable data networks among various devices, including computers, printers, storage devices, and gaming consoles.

Without Ethernet, the internet as we know it today would not exist.

Ward Cunningham (born 1949), a computer programmer, created the WikiWikiWeb program in early 1994 and added it to https://wiki.c2.com in 1995.

The WikiWikiWeb’s emphasis on user-generated content and collaborative editing laid the groundwork for the development of the Wikipedia website.

“Wiki Wiki” is the Hawaiian word meaning quick or fast.

In 1974, Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn used the term “internetwork” in their paper titled “A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication.”

While the term “internet” has been used occasionally in ARPANET documents since the early 1980s, it was not widely adopted until the early 1990s with the growth of the World Wide Web.

On March 11, 1993, in an article for the Minneapolis Star Tribune, Bob Schwabach wrote, “Most of the general public doesn’t even know the internet exists.”

The internet, often dubbed “the network of networks,” serves as the underlying infrastructure of the digital realm, empowering the web, which acts as the primary gateway connecting individuals and devices worldwide.

Today’s community of tech pioneers are shaping the future of the internet and the web.

Stay tuned.

The first (and fastest) exascale supercomputer

© Mark Ollig

The Department of Energy’s Oak Ridge National Lab (ORNL) in Oak Ridge, TN, operates the Hewlett Packard Enterprise (HPE) Frontier exascale supercomputer or OLCF-5.

The OLCF-5 (Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility) supercomputer is the fifth in a series developed by OLCF; thus, the five refers to its generation number.

The $600 million supercomputer was developed for ORNL, manufactured by HPE, and built with the collaboration of ORNL, Cray Inc. (a subsidiary of HPE), and Advanced Micro Devices, Inc., aka AMD.

The OLCF-5 is located at the Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility in Oak Ridge, TN, and is sponsored by the United States Department of Energy.

In March, the OLCF-5 supercomputer achieved a groundbreaking feat by becoming the fastest computer on the planet.

It reached 1.102 quintillion floating-point operations per second in processing power, known as exaflop, crossing over into the exascale processing range.

This record was measured using Rmax, the standard benchmark for evaluating supercomputer performance.

Exascale computing is a type of supercomputing that can perform at least one exaflops (10^18) or one quintillion calculations per second.

The number one quintillion has 18 zeros and is also known as one million trillion.

A stack of one quintillion pennies would weigh about 8.8 trillion pounds and be approximately 11,826,923 miles high.

Indeed, one quintillion is quite a number.

But I digress.

Exascale computing has the potential to revolutionize scientific research by enabling unprecedented accuracy and precision for tackling complex challenges, empowering researchers and scientists to answer previously unsolvable problems in fields including climate science, materials science, energy research, celestial research, and artificial intelligence.

The OLCF-5 occupies an area of 372,4,004 square feet and houses 74 computer cabinets, some of which weigh as much as 8,000 pounds.

These cabinets are located in a climate-controlled environment to maintain stable temperature and humidity levels.

The OLCF-5 supercomputer features 9,472 AMD Epyc 7453s “Trento” central processing units (CPU) with 64 cores (processing unit) operating at 2 GHz (totaling 606,208 cores).

It has 37,888 Radeon Instinct MI250X graphics processing units (GPU), using an impressive 8,335,360 cores.

Each computing node of the OLCF-5 supercomputer is fitted with a 64-core AMD Trento CPU, 512 gigabytes of Double Data Rate, four Synchronous Dynamic Random-Access Memory (DDR4 SDRAM), and four AMD Radeon Instinct GPUs.

The supercomputing system is built on a seven-nanometer production node process using 16.6 billion transistors.

From a nearby electrical substation, a new 2.5-mile-long dedicated power line is needed to be installed in the room housing the supercomputer.

The OLCF-5 consumes 21 megawatts of power and has a peak power consumption of 40 megawatts.

The supercomputer has a storage system that can read data at 75 terabytes per second and write data at 35 terabytes per second and a flash storage system that can process 15 billion input/output operations per second.

In addition, the OLCF-5 supercomputer has a large file system called the Orion Lustre files ystem that can store up to 700 petabytes (PB) of data.

A petabyte of data equals approximately 1,000 terabytes or 1,000,000 gigabytes of data storage.

The actual number of bytes in 1 PB is 1,125,899,906,842,624.

Putting it into perspective, it would take 486 billion 1.44 MB 3.5-inch floppy disks to hold 700 petabytes of data, which is equivalent to storing 500 billion pages of standard typed text.

A popular 1980s storage method would require a mind-boggling 1.94 quintillion 5.25-inch double-sided 360 KB floppy disks to store 700 petabytes.

It would require approximately 652,421 one-terabyte hard drives to store 700 petabytes of data.

But I digress.

The OLCF-5 supercomputer plays a pivotal role in scientific research, improving efficiency and transforming research and data analysis.

With the help of supercomputers, healthcare medical researchers can analyze vast amounts of data, enabling them to quickly identify patterns and diagnose conditions, develop more effective treatments, and advance medical research in ways that were previously unimaginable.

The OLCF-5’s exascale processing power can shed light on the underlying causes of diseases, paving the way for future personalized medicine and medical solutions.

Supercomputers, with their colossal processing power, will become valuable contributors to improving artificial intelligence.

Scientists and researchers worldwide remotely access OLCF-5 through the self-service portal of the Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility and the Department of Energy’s high-speed computer network ESnet (Energy Sciences Network).

Cerebras Systems Inc., an artificial intelligence company, recently claimed that the Condor Galaxy-1 supercomputer, owned by G42, a technology holding company based in Abu Dhabi, UAE, has achieved a processing speed of 4 exaflops.

Currently, no publicly available Rmax benchmark test results can independently verify and support this claim.

The HPE Frontier exascale supercomputer OLCF-5 is today the first and fastest exascale supercomputer in the world, with a theoretical peak performance capacity of 1.5 exaflops.

Credit: Carlos Jones/ORNL, U.S. Dept. of Energy

Credit: Carlos Jones/ORNL, U.S. Dept. of Energy