Viking 1: the Mars lander that set the standard

@ Mark Ollig

The Soviet Union’s Mars 3 spacecraft soft-landed on Mars Dec. 2, 1971, but its surface signal lasted only about 20 seconds.

It transmitted the first lines of a TV frame, a featureless gray field, before the signal failed.

Viking 1 lifted off Aug. 20, 1975, aboard a Titan IIIE/Centaur rocket from Cape Canaveral toward Mars, about 160 million miles away.

The Centaur was a high-energy stage using twin RL-10 engines that burned liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, known for their reliability and performance.

Because of its looping trajectory around the sun, Viking 1 traveled more than 400 million miles to reach Mars.

Viking 1 was a two-part spacecraft consisting of the Viking 1 orbiter (which would circle Mars) and the Viking 1 lander (designed to land on the surface).

The Titan IIIE core and solid boosters placed the Viking 1 spacecraft in a 104-mile parking orbit around Earth, a temporary holding orbit before departure to Mars.

The Centaur upper stage then restarted from that orbit to perform the trans-Mars injection, sending the spacecraft on its way.

Approximately four minutes later, the upper stage successfully separated from the Viking 1 spacecraft.

As Viking 1 moved outward toward Mars, its speed around the sun fell from about 73,000 mph near Earth’s orbit to roughly 48,000 mph near Mars’ orbit.

The spacecraft performed three trajectory-correction maneuvers on its journey to Mars: Aug. 27, 1975; June 10, 1976; and June 15, 1976.

During its 11-month journey to the Red Planet, the Viking 1 lander was secured in a protective aeroshell that acted as a heat shield.

It was connected to the Viking 1 orbiter via mechanical latches and an electrical umbilical for power and signals.

The Viking 1 spacecraft entered Mars orbit June 19, 1976.

For the next four weeks, mission controllers from Earth observed images of the Mars surface from the Viking 1 orbiter and confirmed a safe landing site for the Viking 1 lander.

A timed sequence then triggered the release of the lander using pyrotechnic devices, while springs pushed it onto its descent path.

The Viking 1 lander touched down in Chryse Planitia July 20, 1976.

Because radio signals take time to travel between Earth and Mars, the lander relied on its onboard computer for many tasks.

It drew power from two radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs, which convert heat from radioactive decay into electricity), while the orbiter used solar power.

The lander carried twin panoramic cameras and three biology experiments, returning the first US photos from the Martian surface and conducting the first life-detection experiments (searching for signs of life) on another planet.

Its weather package measured temperature, pressure, and wind, giving Earth the first day-to-day weather reports from Mars.

I recall hearing it said on a 1976 television news broadcast, “Today, the temperature reached 72 degrees Fahrenheit in the northern equatorial region on the planet Mars.”

Viking 1 operated until November 1982. The Viking 1 orbiter ended its mission July 25, 1978; the Viking 1 orbiter ended Aug. 17, 1980.

Decades after Viking, another milestone arrived; 45 years later, NASA’s Perseverance rover touched down in Jezero Crater Feb. 18, 2021.

Perseverance operates autonomously to handle communication delays with Earth efficiently.

It uses AutoNav on the Vision Compute Element (VCE) to navigate and avoid obstacles, while AEGIS helps select targets and gather SuperCam data.

The rover is powered by a plutonium Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (MMRTG).

Ingenuity, a helicopter carried by Perseverance, first flew April 19, 2021.

It is solar-powered and uses a Qualcomm Snapdragon 801 processor to navigate autonomously.

In 72 flights, Ingenuity traveled more than 10 miles, took more than 18,000 images, reached about 79 feet in altitude, and flew up to 2,300 feet in one flight.

Ingenuity’s final flight on Mars took place Jan. 18, 2024.

Looking to the future, Mars Sample Return, a joint NASA-European Space Agency campaign, is being replanned; NASA expects to confirm the mission design in 2026 and target robotic sample delivery in the 2030s.

The Perseverance rover captured images of a streak of light in the Martian sky, sparking speculation about the interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS.

However, NASA has not yet confirmed the sighting as comet 3I/ATLAS.

The European Space Agency released official images of comet 3I/ATLAS from its Mars orbiters, the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter and the Mars Express, around the same time.

Ultimately, the Perseverance mission supports NASA’s broader goal of preparing for future human exploration of Mars, which builds upon the Artemis program’s mission to the moon.

Artemis II will send four astronauts around the moon on a roughly 10-day flight to test Orion’s systems.

The Artemis III mission will be the first south-polar landing of astronauts since Dec. 11, 1972.

NASA aims for the first crewed missions to Mars sometime in the 2030s.

Hurry up, NASA. I’m not getting any younger.

Viking 1 is remembered as the mission that set the standard for future missions to Mars – and beyond.

Space law in the age of AI

@Mark Ollig


The Outer Space Treaty (OST) opened for signatures in Washington, London, and Moscow Jan. 27, 1967.

By the time it took effect Oct. 10, 1967, 61 countries had signed it.

The treaty established fundamental principles for space activity, including the banning of national ownership of outer space and the guarantee of freedom for peaceful exploration.

It also prohibited the placement of nuclear weapons or other weapons of mass destruction (WMD) in Earth orbit, on the Moon, or on other celestial bodies.

Of course, the 1967 Outer Space Treaty does not mention artificial intelligence (AI).

The United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) promotes discussions about safety and responsibility in the use of AI.

UNOOSA also maintains the official status of the five core United Nations (UN) space treaties.

The 1967 OST allows all countries to explore and use space freely, but it does not let any nation claim ownership of celestial bodies.

Its Articles X to XII promote openness by allowing visits to these objects in space and the sharing of information.

However, I noted the 1967 treaty permits military personnel to carry out peaceful scientific activities, and it does not expressly prohibit placing conventional weapons in Earth orbit.

New agreements and updates are helping to address complex problems that modern satellites and spacecraft create for the current 1967 OST.

The Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts (1968) requires countries to help distressed astronauts and return them safely to Earth.

The Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects (1972) makes the launching state liable for any damage caused by falling space debris on the surface of the Earth or to aircraft in flight.

The Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space (1975) requires countries to submit basic details of space objects launched into outer space to the United Nations.

The Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (1979) extends OST principles to the Moon and urges an international regime for its resource use.

The treaty strongly emphasizes that countries may not place nuclear weapons or other WMD in Earth orbit.

Military bases, weapons testing, and military maneuvers are not allowed on the Moon or other celestial bodies.

However, military personnel can participate in peaceful scientific activities there.

The Artemis Accords, introduced in 2020, enhance the 1967 Outer Space Treaty by emphasizing transparency, collaboration, and the responsible use of resources in space exploration.

Originally signed by eight countries, the Accords have expanded to 56 countries, including Senegal, which joined July 24 of this year.

In September of this year, UNOOSA issued a policy brief titled “Ensuring Responsible AI in Space and Earth Observation.”

The brief emphasizes that ethical and transparent AI is essential in space.

It requires a clear understanding and monitoring of AI actions, as well as human oversight in major decisions, particularly for deep-space missions. Read it here: https://bit.ly/47909Kf.

Launched Dec. 18, 2019, the European Space Agency’s (ESA) Optical Payload for the Satellite with Amateur Transceiver (OPS-SAT) was an orbiting AI lab about 320 miles above Earth.

Using neural networks installed on the satellite system, it analyzed images directly onboard, while its machine-learning models handled power, temperature, and orientation adjustments instantly.

The mission ended May 22, 2024, when OPS-SAT reentered Earth’s atmosphere and burned up.

NASA managed the Starling 1.5 experiment this year, testing autonomous satellite coordination with SpaceX’s Starlink network.

The experiment showcased AI-assisted space traffic coordination, including automated screening of trajectories and the assignment of maneuver responsibility.

The European Space Agency’s (ESA) PhiSat-1 launched in early September 2020 on a Vega rideshare from Kourou, French Guiana.

It uses onboard AI to filter cloud-covered images and send only clear images to Earth.

The PhiSat-2 satellite was launched Aug. 16, 2024, carrying a multispectral imager and advanced AI capabilities.

Its AI helps sort data quickly so teams can make fast decisions during disasters, find ships, track wildfires, and protect the environment.

PhiSat-2 quickly turns raw images into near-real-time street maps, giving emergency teams and maritime groups instant information about what is happening.

By the end of October 1967, about 1,090 objects had been launched into Earth orbit since Sputnik 1 in 1957.

In 1967, the United States launched 87 spacecraft, according to NASA.

Most launches to that date were by the United States and the Soviet Union; others with satellites included the United Kingdom, Canada, Italy, and France, with France the only one to reach orbit on its own.

As of February 2024, NASA reports that roughly 9,300 satellites are currently orbiting Earth.

NASA also reports that more than 45,000 human-made space objects orbit the planet, including debris and nonoperational satellite hardware.

UNOOSA leads discussions on international space law through the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space.

For the latest updates on the status of outer space treaties and new developments, see UNOOSA: https://bit.ly/4nBUOBe.

Wally Schirra and Sigma 7

@Mark Ollig

In late September 1962, astronaut Walter “Wally” Schirra Jr. conducted a 6.5-hour Mercury-Atlas 8 (MA-8) simulation with NASA’s worldwide tracking network, serving as the dress rehearsal for the actual flight.

Sixty-three years ago today, Oct. 3, 1962, the MA-8 spacecraft Sigma 7 launched from Cape Canaveral, FL.

At 39 years old, Schirra piloted the Sigma 7 spacecraft attached atop an Atlas LV-3B booster that generated about 368,000 pounds of thrust at liftoff.

The Atlas LV-3B was adapted from the Atlas D missile, America’s first intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM).

It stood nearly 95 feet tall, measured 10 feet in diameter, and weighed about 260,000 pounds at liftoff when fueled with kerosene and liquid oxygen.

About two minutes after liftoff, the rocket dropped its two booster engines, and the sustainer engine carried Sigma 7 into Earth orbit.

Schirra maintained radio contact with mission controllers at the Mercury Control Center (MCC), led by Flight Director Christopher C. Kraft and supported by ground teams.

The MCC was at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (now Cape Canaveral Space Force Station), FL, where all Project Mercury flights were coordinated.

NASA’s Mission Control began operations from Houston, TX, in 1965.

From orbit, Schirra spoke with astronaut capsule communicators (CapComs) at the MCC, which included astronaut Donald K. “Deke” Slayton.

The original Mercury Seven astronauts were John H. Glenn Jr., Alan B. Shepard Jr., Virgil I. “Gus” Grissom, Malcolm Scott Carpenter, Leroy Gordon Cooper Jr., Donald K. “Deke” Slayton, and Walter M. “Wally” Schirra Jr.

At liftoff, Schirra reported, “Okay, Deke, the clock has started. Roll program started. Smooth. Real smooth.”

Slayton replied, “Roger, Sigma 7. Read you loud and clear. That was a mighty fine lift-off.”

The Sigma 7 mission tested how well Schirra and his spacecraft worked together during a lengthier flight than previous Mercury missions.

It also checked NASA’s worldwide tracking system for future missions.

The Mercury spacecraft was a small, cone-shaped vehicle designed for one astronaut.

It measured six feet, 10 inches in length and six feet, two-and-a-half inches in diameter, and with the launch escape tower attached, the stack stood approximately 26 feet tall.

Built by McDonnell Aircraft Corporation and weighing about 3,200 pounds, the MA-8 spacecraft featured the Attitude Stabilization and Control System (ASCS) for attitude control.

During the flight, the Attitude Stabilization and Control System (ASCS) automatically maintained the spacecraft’s steady state and held its position for most of the mission.

Spacecraft attitude and stability during flight could also be controlled manually through a fly-by-wire system, where a hand controller sent electrical signals to the control electronics, which pulsed small reaction-control thrusters.

The ASCS was built by Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Company (now Honeywell) in Minneapolis.

The spacecraft used both alternating and direct current power sources, with backups, and cockpit indicators alerted the astronaut to any electrical faults.

The cabin panel layout consisted of 120 controls, including 55 electrical switches and 30 fuses.

NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, MD, operated the worldwide tracking network and used two IBM 7090 computers running in real time to compute Sigma 7’s trajectory and predictions. An IBM 709 at the Bermuda station provided additional support.

Results were routed to the Mercury Control Center and tracking stations worldwide to support voice and telemetry links with the spacecraft.

NASA’s Project Mercury network for MA-8 connected 21 ground stations and tracking ships located around the world.

Sigma 7 used line-of-sight very high frequency (VHF) and ultra-high frequency (UHF) voice communications, including a 296.8 megahertz (MHz) VHF channel.

It also carried a high-frequency (HF) voice backup for long-range contact and a recovery beacon for post-landing operations.

Sigma 7 flew at altitudes between 100 and 176 miles, averaging 17,558 miles per hour.

After completing the sixth orbit and covering nearly 144,000 miles in just more than nine hours, a US record at the time, Schirra prepared the spacecraft for reentry back to Earth.

Sigma 7 landed in the central Pacific Ocean about 275 miles northeast of Midway Island and about 5.1 miles from the recovery ship, the aircraft carrier USS Kearsarge.

Schirra called it a “textbook flight” and said he chose the name Sigma 7, with sigma (the Greek letter Σ) meaning “sum,” to highlight the engineering sum behind the mission, with “7” acknowledging the original Mercury Seven astronauts.

Wally Schirra Jr. is the only astronaut to have flown all three NASA mission programs, Mercury (Sigma 7, Oct. 3, 1962), Gemini (Gemini 6A, Dec. 15, 1965), and Apollo (Apollo 7, Oct. 11, 1968).

During a NASA oral-history interview Dec. 1, 1998, Wally Schirra recalled meeting then-Vice President Hubert H. Humphrey, who chaired the National Space Council, during Gemini 6 training in 1965.

Schirra related how Humphrey asked whether they could be heard outside the soundproofed Gemini simulator and was told they could not.

Humphrey then climbed into the right-hand seat of the Gemini docking simulator, asked to be awakened in five minutes, and fell asleep.

When awakened, Humphrey asked, “What were we doing?”

Schirra said he was a fan of Humphrey’s from that day forward and called it “a fun story about a nice man.”

Walter Marty “Wally” Schirra Jr. died May 3, 2007, at age 84.