SA-4: groundwork for Apollo’s ‘giant leap’

@Mark Ollig

The Saturn project was begun Aug. 15, 1958, by the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA) to develop heavy-lift launch vehicles.

ABMA was transferred to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) July 1, 1960, which then became NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center.

Dr. Wernher von Braun, who developed the V-2 missile during WWII, played a key role in the development of what became the Saturn V rocket.

Today, 62 years ago, NASA launched the uncrewed Saturn I SA-4.

The Saturn-Apollo 4 (SA-4) flight was designed to assess the rocket’s guidance systems, engine redundancy and performance, structural integrity, and ability to handle an engine failure during flight.

At 2:11 p.m. CST (Minnesota time), March 28, 1963, NASA launched the uncrewed Saturn I SA-4 (Saturn-Apollo 4) rocket from Cape Canaveral Launch Complex 34 (LC-34).

This fourth launch of a Saturn I vehicle was the last in the initial testing phase focused on the first stage.

According to the Apollo Program Summary Report, the rocket stood about 162 feet tall, and the total launch vehicle weight, including its dummy upper stages, was about 1,124,000 pounds.

The SA-4 mission was designed as a single-stage working rocket with a dummy second stage to evaluate the performance of the first stage (S-I).

This stage was engineered to generate around 1,500,000 pounds of thrust.

The S-IV “dummy” second stage served primarily for aerodynamic studies and produced no thrust.

Engine No. 5, in what was called an “engine-out” operation, was intentionally shut down 100 seconds after liftoff, with its fuel redistributed to the seven remaining engines.

The flight continued without issues, as the other engines burned two seconds longer to compensate for the loss of Engine No. 5.

This engine-out operation allowed engineers to confirm the SA-4 rocket’s stability and trajectory by using the remaining engines to counteract the loss of thrust from one engine.

As the rocket ascended, it passed through maximum dynamic pressure, showing no signs of failure or stress.

The SA-4 flight provided data on engine redundancy, aerodynamics, and structural behavior.

Engineers fitted the dummy SA-4 S-IV stage with camera pods and test fairings (structures reduce drag) to study future Saturn rocket configurations.

The Saturn I SA-4 obtained a peak velocity of 3,660 mph and reached an altitude of approximately 80 miles before returning to Earth 15 minutes later, where it splashed in the Atlantic Ocean.

The mission tested the spacecraft’s retrorocket system for future stage separation, structural stability, and guidance during engine failure.

The flight also aided the development of the Saturn V rocket for crewed lunar missions.

The Saturn I SA-4 rocket’s first stage featured eight RP-1 (Rocket Propellant-1, a highly refined form of kerosene) and liquid oxygen engines.

These engines directly contributed to the design and engineering of the larger and more advanced engines used in later Saturn rockets, including the Saturn V.

The Apollo 1 mission, intended as the first crewed Apollo flight on a Saturn IB rocket, was tragically never launched Jan. 27, 1967.

A fire in the command module during a launch rehearsal test at Cape Canaveral killed astronauts Gus Grissom, Ed White, and Roger Chaffee.

After the Apollo 1 fire, the command module was totally redesigned using a mixed oxygen-nitrogen atmosphere. The crew cabin was reinforced, improved wiring was installed, and a redesigned hatch was added for safer crew exits.

NASA’s powerful new Saturn V rocket’s inaugural uncrewed launch, designated Apollo 4 and referred to as SA-501, took place Nov. 9, 1967, and was deemed a success.

Apollo 7, the first crewed mission aboard the Saturn IB rocket, was launched Oct. 11, 1968.

The Saturn IB’s first stage used eight H-1 engines to produce approximately 1.6 million pounds of thrust at liftoff.

It carried three astronauts who orbited the Earth 163 times more than nearly 11 days before returning to the Atlantic Ocean.

Commanded by astronaut Walter Schirra, Apollo 7 thoroughly tested the Apollo command module to ensure its reliability and readiness for future crewed missions to the moon.

Apollo 8, commanded by astronaut Frank Borman, was launched Dec. 21, 1968, using the Saturn V rocket.

At launch, the Saturn V was 363 feet tall, weighed about 6.2 million pounds, and produced 7.6 million pounds of thrust from its F-1 engines in the first stage.

Apollo 8 was notable as the first crewed mission to orbit the moon. It completed 10 orbits before safely returning to Earth.

NASA launched Artemis I, an uncrewed mission to the moon, Nov. 16, 2022, using the 322-foot-tall Space Launch System (SLS) Block 1 rocket, which weighed nearly six million pounds.

The SLS’s four RS-25 engines produced 8.8 million pounds of thrust for eight minutes at launch.

The Orion Crew Module, containing a human dummy, reached the vicinity of the moon on Nov. 21, 2022.

Sixty-two years ago, the Saturn I SA-4 rocket launch paved the way for Apollo 11’s “one giant leap for mankind.”

Watch the launch at https://bit.ly/4kTcTK4.

Ranger 9’s lunar impact

@Mark Ollig 

The Soviet Union’s Luna 2 became the first spacecraft from Earth to impact the moon Sept. 14, 1959.

It was not equipped with cameras.

The US launched Ranger 4 in 1962 with cameras to capture images of the moon; however, the spacecraft malfunctioned and failed to return any pictures before impacting the lunar surface April 26, 1962.

Ranger 5 passed within approximately 450 miles of the moon Oct. 21, 1962; an electrical malfunction led to power loss, preventing data transmission and camera imaging.

Ranger 6 reached the moon but crashed Feb. 2, 1964, without returning images due to a camera malfunction.

The US achieved its first successful lunar imaging mission with Ranger 7, which transmitted 4,308 images of the Mare Cognitum region before intentionally impacting the moon July 31, 1964.

Ranger 8 was launched Feb. 17, 1965, and returned 7,137 images of Mare Tranquillitatis (Sea of Tranquility) before impacting the moon Feb. 20, 1965.

Built by NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Ranger 9 was designed to reach the moon, take high-quality images, and transmit them back to Earth before impacting the lunar surface.

Sixty years ago today, March 21, 1965, at 3:37:02 p.m. (Minnesota time), NASA launched the Ranger 9 spacecraft from Cape Canaveral, FL.

The Ranger 9 spacecraft, weighing approximately 806 pounds, and it was launched aboard an Atlas LV-3A Agena B rocket.

The launch vehicle consisted of an Atlas LV-3A first stage combined with an Agena B upper stage.

The Atlas LV-3A, and the Atlas series of rockets in general, were directly derived from the SM-65 Atlas intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) program.

The Atlas LV-3A was a specific variant adapted for space launch purposes. It was powered by two LR89-NA-5 booster engines and a single LR105-NA-7 sustainer engine, generating a total thrust of 367,000 pounds of thrust.

The Atlas-Agena B was a two-and-a-half-stage rocket consisting of an Atlas LV-3A first stage and an Agena B upper stage.

The Agena B upper stage produced 16,000 pounds of thrust using a single XLR81 (Model 8096) American liquid-propellant rocket engine.

The Atlas 204D first stage and Agena B 6009 upper stage successfully placed the Agena and Ranger 9 into a 100-nautical-mile (115 statute mile) parking orbit around Earth.

A 90-second burn of the Agena propelled Ranger 9 toward the moon, after which the Agena stage separated from the spacecraft.

At about 70 minutes after launch, Ranger 9 initiated the “delayed command sequence,” resulting in solar-panel extension and the release of the gyroscopes from a locked or constrained (caged) position, allowing them to spin freely and function.

The sequence also activated the high-gain-antenna drive circuitry.

Ranger 9 communicated using two antennas — a quasi-omnidirectional low-gain and a parabolic high-gain.

It carried three transmitters: two 60-watt television transmitters in the 960 MHz band (for its narrow-angle and wide-angle cameras) and a 3-watt transponder for telemetry and tracking.

The spacecraft’s telecommunications equipment converted the video signal elements into a radio frequency signal, transmitting it back to Earth through the spacecraft’s high-gain antenna.

Ranger 9 arrived at the moon March 24, 1965, and used six television cameras, two wide-angle and four narrow-angle, all directed to its descent path to capture detailed images of the lunar surface and its impact.

Millions of Americans (including me) followed the spacecraft’s descent via real-time television coverage.

Approximately 19 minutes before impact, Ranger 9 began capturing the first of 5,814 high-quality photographs. The initial images were taken from a distance of 1,438 miles to the lunar surface.

These images captured detailed views of the rim and floor of Alphonsus, a large crater about 12 degrees south of the lunar equator.

The best photographic resolution reached was about 10 to 12 inches before impact.

After 64.5 hours of flight, Ranger 9 struck the moon March 24, 1965, at 14:08:19.994 UT (8:08:20 a.m. Minnesota time) inside the Alphonsus crater.

The impact site, as determined from Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter images, was located at minus-12.828 degrees latitude and minus-2.665 degrees longitude.

Impact velocity was 5,972.62 mph, according to the NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive.

Fragment pieces of Ranger 9 are approximately 915 miles southwest from where the Apollo 11 lunar module, Eagle, would land four years later.

The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera (LROC) camera system aboard NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) spacecraft has been operational, orbiting the moon since 2009.

Use NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera QuickMap tool (quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/) to explore high-resolution images of the moon, the Ranger 9 impact site, and the Apollo 11 landing site.

You can enter the following coordinates to see the Ranger 9 impact site: latitude: minus-12.828 degrees south, longitude: minus -2.665 degrees west.

The Apollo 11 landing site (Tranquility Base) coordinates are latitude: 0.67408 degrees north; and longitude: 23.47297 degrees east.

The Minneapolis Star newspaper printed March 24, 1965, the front page headline “Moon Ranger a Hit.”

“Ranger obeyed 25 radio commands from Earth to maneuver itself within four miles of a prearranged target. The camera-laden probe impacted at 8:08 a.m. (Minneapolis time) in the floor of the crater Alphonsus, previously designated as a possible landing site for U.S. astronauts,” the article stated.

You can watch the Ranger 9 lunar impact as recorded by its onboard camera at the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum’s YouTube channel: bit.ly/4kx0bAy.

The moon with blue dots showing the locations of Ranger 9 (debris field)
and the Apollo 11 landing site. The Apollo 11 landing site (Tranquility Base)
coordinates are: latitude, 0.67408 degrees north; and longitude, 23.47297 degrees east.
The Ranger 9 impact site is at: latitude, minus-12.828 degrees south; and
longitude, minus-2.665 degrees West.
(Submitted by Mark Ollig)

Remember ping and nslookup?

@Mark Ollig

The ping command tests a remote computer’s connectivity by sending a small data packet and measuring the response time.

Mike Muuss created the ping utility in December 1983 while at the Ballistic Research Laboratory in Aberdeen, MD, as part of the Unix-based Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) developed by the University of California, Berkeley.

Ping was developed for Unix and later adapted for DOS (disk operating system) in the late 1980s as networking expanded. Named after sonar “pings,” the term stands for “Packet InterNet Groper.”

Ping uses ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) to check if a device is reachable and to measure latency, which measures network performance by assessing the time it takes for data to travel back and forth.

When I ran the ping mn.gov from the command line in my Windows operating system, the output was: “Pinging mn.gov [66.225.237.206] with 32 bytes of data.”

While small, 32 bytes effectively represent a basic network interaction.

Within brackets, [66.225.237.206] displayed the Internet Protocol (IP) address for mn.gov.

Four replies showed that the ping received packets of 32 bytes: “Reply from 66.225.237.206: bytes=32 time=63ms TTL=48,” “bytes=32 time=61ms TTL=48, bytes=32 time=51ms TTL=48, and bytes=32 time=59ms TTL=48.”

The repeated “Reply from 66.225.237.206” lines were reassuring, confirming I was getting responses back from that specific IP address.

TTL (Time To Live) limits the number of hops (routers) a packet can pass through before being discarded.

The “bytes=32” and “time=…” parts provided technical measurements about each reply packet.

The “bytes=32” indicates 32 bytes of data were received, and “time=…” shows the round-trip time, meaning it took a certain number of milliseconds for the packet to go to the IP address and come back to my computer.

Other ping replies showed varying round-trip times: 63 milliseconds, 61 milliseconds, 51 milliseconds, and 59 milliseconds, with “Ping statistics for 66.225.237.206:”

This section provided a summary of the entire ping test, which focused on IP address 66.225.237.206: “Packets: Sent = four, Received = four, Lost = zero (0% loss),” which is good news, meaning all four ping packets I sent were successfully received back with no packet loss.

Finally, it gave “Approximate round trip times in milliseconds: Minimum = 51 ms, Maximum = 63 ms, Average = 58 ms.” Lower round-trip times are generally better, as they indicate a faster connection.

These times summarized the packet travel duration to and from 66.225.237.206, indicating connection speed and website responsiveness.

Key points about ping and IP addresses for sites like mn.gov: ping relies on and uses the Domain Name System (DNS) behind the scenes.

When I typed “ping mn.gov” and pressed enter, the command first performed a DNS lookup to resolve the IP address. The DNS (Domain Name System) translates website names into numerical IP addresses.

Websites like mn.gov may have multiple IP addresses.

The ping command generally resolves a domain name to a single IP for testing.

The nslookup utility, originally developed for UNIX, queries DNS servers and is often used by administrators of BIND (Berkeley Internet Name Domain) servers.

Developed at UC Berkeley in the 1980s by Douglas Terry, Mark Painter, and others, BIND evolved alongside the DNS, established in 1983 by Paul Mockapetris.

Nslookup was later ported to DOS in the late 1980s.

Using nslookup’s ability to resolve IP addresses to domain names makes it a valuable tool for network troubleshooting and DNS queries.

I used the “nslookup mn.gov” command to query DNS servers for information about the domain name.

The results showed:

Server: NCQ1338.mynetworksettings.com

Address: 192.168.0.1

This data indicated that the DNS server used for the lookup was NCQ1338.mynetworksettings.com, with an IP address of 192.168.0.1. and is likely the IP address of my local router, which is also acting as a DNS server.

The results also provided a “non-authoritative answer:”

Name: mn.gov, Address: 66.225.237.206.

This showed that the nslookup also found the IP address 66.225.237.206 for mn.gov.

The “non-authoritative answer” designation means this information came from a DNS server that is not the primary source of information for the mn.gov) domain, but rather a cached (collected) copy.

Unlike ping, tools like the “nslookup” command can retrieve multiple IP addresses for a domain if it has multiple DNS records, such as multiple A (IPv4) or AAAA (IPv6) records for versions 4 and 6).

The nslookup command returned a single IPv4 address for mn.gov: 66.225.237.206.

The ping of mn.gov revealed the same IPv4 address and confirmed basic connectivity, but 66.225.237.206 could be only one of mn.gov’s assigned IP addresses.

IPv4 and IPv6 are the two primary versions of IP addresses.

IPv4, the original version, was developed in the 1970s by pioneers like Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn, evolving from their work at DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency).

IPv4, standardized in the early 1980s, uses a 32-bit “dotted decimal” format, allowing for about 4.3 billion unique addresses.

Initially, 4.3 billion was adequate, but rapid internet growth and the rise of various connected devices led to the depletion of IPv4 addresses.

The IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority) officially ran out of IPv4 addresses in February 2011.

IPv4 remains in use because Network Address Translation (NAT) helps conserve addresses; its limitations led to the development of IPv6.

The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) began developing IPv6 in the early 1990s to solve the problems of IPv4 address exhaustion and minimize the complexity of NAT.

Standardized in the late 1990s by Dr. Steve E. Deering and Robert M. Hinden, IPv6 uses a 128-bit hexadecimal format, allowing for around 340 undecillion (340 followed by 36 zeros) unique IP addresses.

I doubt that we will ever run out of IPv6 addresses.

Modern operating systems support the ping and nslookup commands for both IPv4 and IPv6 addresses.

During my time in the telephone industry, I used ping and nslookup to verify network connectivity to the IP addresses of voice and data-switching platforms.

Alexander Bell’s phone freed dad from the Pony Express

@Mark Ollig

The telephone revolutionized global communication and reshaped the world.

Controversy still exists over who actually invented the telephone first, which I addressed in my column published Sept. 29, 2023.

Alexander Graham Bell’s work with the hearing impaired greatly influenced his research on sound transmission, ultimately leading to his telephone patent.

Bell began his tenure at Boston University in 1873 as a professor of vocal physiology in the school of oratory.

There, he concentrated his research on the electrical transmission of sound, building upon the principles of telegraphy with a vibrating metal disc diaphragm to convert sound waves into electrical signals.

These electrical signals could be transmitted to another telephone, where they would be converted back into audible sound, forming the foundation of his telephone design.

Bell needed someone to bring his design to life, and that was Thomas A. Watson.

Watson, a skilled mechanical and electrical worker, would turn Bell’s ideas into a functioning telephone.

John Frederic Daniell invented the Daniell cell in 1836, a battery that uses solid copper and zinc metal parts immersed in special liquids (copper sulfate and zinc sulfate solutions) separated by a thin unglazed ceramic wall with tiny holes.

The Daniell cell provided a stable voltage source, 1.1 volts DC, and was used with telegraphs.

While working on the telephone, Bell and Watson used various electrochemical battery cells, including the Daniell cell, as power sources for their sound experiments.

Bell required a stable voltage for his electromagnetic transmitters and receivers, and using Daniell cells delivered the reliable output voltages he needed.

By connecting iron and steel telegraph wires to the cell’s electrodes, Bell and Watson effectively powered the transmission of intelligible speech over wire.

Years later, copper wire replaced iron and steel due to its superior conductivity, allowing for a more sufficient transmission of electrical audio signals for telecommunication systems.

Alexander Graham Bell achieved the first intelligible voice transmission over his telephone system March 10, 1876.

In his laboratory at 5 Exeter Place in Boston, MA, with the telephone’s transmitter and receiver connected by a battery-powered wired circuit, Bell wrote the following in his notebook, stored in the Library of Congress:

“Mr. Watson was stationed in one room with the receiving instrument. He pressed one ear closely against S [sound receiver] and closed his other ear with his hand. The transmitting instrument was placed in another room, and the doors of both rooms were closed.

I then shouted into M [mouthpiece] the following sentence: ‘Mr. Watson, come here, I want to see you.’

To my delight, he came and declared that he had heard and understood what I said. I asked him to repeat the words. He answered, ‘You said ‘Mr. Watson, come here, I want to see you.’

We then changed places, and I listened at S while Mr. Watson read a few passages from a book into the mouthpiece M.

It was undoubtedly the case that articulate sounds proceeded from S. The effect was loud, but indistinct and muffled.”

Bell likely meant the words were understandable, but the sound was muffled — unclear.

His drawing and notes for this can be seen on the Library of Congress website: bit.ly/43lA6xY.

Filed Feb. 14, 1876, Alexander Graham Bell was issued March 7, 1876, US Patent 174,465 titled “Improvement to Telegraphy.”

Bell made a diagram drawing Aug. 21, 1876, writing on the bottom of it, “As far as I can remember, these are the first drawings made of any telephone — or instrument for the transmission of vocal utterances by telegraph.”

You can see it on the Library of Congress website: bit.ly/3DfBjMI.

The St. Louis Daily Globe-Democrat newspaper reported Oct. 24, 1876, on an experiment conducted by Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas A. Watson on the evening of Oct. 9, 1876, in a lengthy piece titled “Telephony.”

Bell, situated at 69 Kilby St. in Boston, and Watson located in Cambridgeport, MA, tested his telephones using the two-mile stretch of telegraph line owned by the Walworth Manufacturing Co.

They installed telephones at both ends of the telegraph wire and replaced nine Daniell cells with ten Leclanché cell batteries, which provided a stronger and more stable current for improved voice transmission.

In their notes published in the newspaper article, Bell and Watson would occasionally change out the batteries to maintain voice transmission quality.

“Articulate conversation then took place through the wire. The sounds, at first faint and indistinct, became suddenly quite loud and intelligible,” the newspaper article said.

Bell and Watson conversed for about three hours on the telephone, and much of their conversation is published in the article.

Alexander Graham Bell was born March 3, 1847, and died Aug. 2, 1922, at age 75.

Thomas Augustus Watson, born Jan. 18, 1854, died Dec. 13, 1934, at the age of 80.

A century after Bell’s patent, March 7, 1976, my father, John Ollig, manager of the Winsted Telephone Co., commented on Bell’s invention in a local newspaper interview.

“I am thankful he invented the telephone,” my father said. “If he hadn’t, I would have probably ended up in the Pony Express business, and that would have presented a problem for me because I can’t ride a horse.”

Alexander Bell made a diagram drawing on Aug. 21, 1876,

writing on the bottom of it: 

"As far as I can remember these are the first drawings made 

of any telephone — or instrument for the transmission of vocal

utterances by telegraph."

Source- Library of Congress

Driving innovation: ‘Think different’

@Mark Ollig

The January 1975 front cover of Popular Electronics featured a photograph of the build-it-yourself Altair 8800, which was called “World’s First Minicomputer Kit to Rival Commercial Models.”

The Altair 8800 kit, which included the components, cost $397 ($2,346 today), while a fully assembled Altair 8800 computer sold for $498 ($2,921 today).

“If you can handle a soldering iron and follow simple instructions, you can build a computer,” read the Altair 8800 advertisement.

Yes, I could handle a soldering iron very well back then.

The Altair 8800 had a brushed metal front panel with two rows of toggle switches and red LED lights.

The top row featured 16 switches for entering memory addresses, while the bottom row controlled functions like “run” and “stop.”

Each switch represented a binary digit in a 16-bit address, allowing users to set the desired memory location. LED lights displayed data values and system status.

Programming the Altair 8800 required knowledge of binary code. Users would input the binary code using the switches on the front panel and then view the output via the LED lights.

During the 1970s, electronic hobbyists became proficient at assembling various microcomputer kits, often referred to as “hobby machines” or “homebrew computers.”

The sense of community and knowledge sharing among these hobbyists led to the formation of many computer clubs across the country.

In 1975, Steve Wozniak, along with his friend Steve Jobs, joined the Homebrew Computer Club, an organization of computing hobbyists located in today’s Silicon Valley, CA.

Its first meeting was hosted March 5, 1975, in Gordon French’s garage in Menlo Park, CA. Some 32 attendees shared questions, comments, and experiences, and exchanged information on the technologies used to build computers.

The meeting involved a mix of hardware experts and software programmers, with six members already operating homebrew systems and others building computers with Altair 8800 kits and the 8008 microprocessor released in 1972.

It was reportedly a spontaneous, collaborative atmosphere that fostered dynamic idea exchange, and the club would meet every two weeks.

At one Homebrew Club meeting, Wozniak, who was designing calculators at Hewlett/Packard in Cupertino, CA, presented a working computer he had designed and built.

The computer included several features not commonly found on other hobbyist computers, such as a keyboard, which allowed a user to type programming code instead of toggling switches to input information.

With Wozniak’s computer, both the code input and the computer’s output were displayed on a television screen, which was the portable Sears color television he had brought from his home.

He had wired the television to the computer’s circuitry board and then made the wiring connections to the keyboard.

Wozniak had no plans to sell his computer. Instead, he wanted to share it with fellow hobbyists at the Homebrew Computer Club, gathering feedback and refining his design – until Jobs saw its potential as a product and suggested, “You know, people are interested; why don’t we start a company?”

The computer he demonstrated at the Homebrew Computer Club would become the first Apple computer, the Apple I, built by Steve “Woz” Wozniak.

Wozniak, Jobs, and Ronald Wayne co-founded Apple Computer Company April 1, 1976.

Ronald Wayne was the lesser-known third co-founder of Apple Computer, although he was noted for designing the company’s first logo.

Twelve days after Apple was founded, Wayne sold his 10% stake back to Jobs and Wozniak for $800, as he was concerned about the financial risk.

In 1977, he received an additional $1,500 to waive any future claims against Apple, which today has a market value of $3.3T (trillion) and is expected to reach $4T this year.

“When I built this Apple I… and sort of the first keyboard… [I felt] the first computer should look like a typewriter,” Wozniak said in an interview. “So, it should have a keyboard. And the output device is the TV set.”

“The Apple I and II were designed strictly on a hobby, for-fun basis, not to be a product for a company. They were meant to bring down to the [Homebrew] club and put on the table during the random access period and demonstrate,” Wozniak wrote.

He aimed to improve the technical efficiency of the Apple II computer by incorporating features like color graphics, sound, and expansion slots.

Jobs supported a molded plastic case and a marketing strategy that would appeal to consumers.

In the Dec. 18, 1977, San Francisco Examiner, the Apple II computer with 4K of RAM was priced at $1,298, equivalent to $6,715.59 today; with 16K of RAM, it sold for $1,698 ($8,686 today).

Wednesday, March 5, marks the 50th anniversary of the Homebrew Computer Club’s first meeting.

In 2011, I was very fortunate to have Steve Wozniak personally sign and write a message in his book “iWoz,” which says on the front cover, “How I invented the personal computer, co-founded Apple, and had fun doing it.”

The book was a birthday gift for my son, Mathew, an Apple computer user, who was thrilled to receive the handwritten “Think Different” message from Steve Wozniak, aka “Woz.”

Steve Wozniak’s signature from his book “iWoz.” 
(Photo courtesy Mathew Ollig)

Birth of the telephone directory

@Mark Ollig

In late 1877, George Willard Coy (1836 to 1915), a Civil War veteran, obtained a telephone franchise from the Bell Telephone Co., established earlier that year.

He opened the District Telephone Company of New Haven, CT, Jan. 28, 1878, the first commercial telephone exchange.

The New Haven District Telephone Co. published the world’s first telephone directory Feb. 21, 1878.

This single-page cardboard directory listed approximately 50 subscriber businesses and residences with telephones – without telephone numbers.

When a caller wanted to reach a specific subscriber, they would signal and provide the subscriber’s name to the telephone switchboard operator, who would then connect the call.

George W. Coy built the telephone switchboard, the first in the US, assembling it himself using materials from a local telegraph company and household “carriage bolts, handles from teapot lids, and bustle wire.”

Early telephones required a single wire for transmission, with an earth-ground used as the return path to complete a talk circuit.

Wet batteries or lead-acid batteries with a nominal voltage of 48VDC powered most of the central office telephone equipment.

Magneto telephones were connected to galvanized iron wires strung between poles and attached to glass or porcelain insulators to prevent electrical shorts and signal loss.

Subscriber telephones, like magneto wall phones, relied on dry batteries, such as zinc-carbon dry cells, with a nominal voltage of about 1.5 volts.

Typically, two or three of these cells were connected in series in a magneto phone to power the transmitter (microphone) and the magneto generator (for ringing).

During the 1930s and 1940s, the Winsted Telephone Company (where I once worked for many years) used a single-folded cardboard directory.

The subscriber would crank the hand generator on their magneto phone, creating an electrical ringing current that traveled to the local switchboard, alerting the operator to an incoming call via a spring-loaded metal drop annunciator.

The annunciator, visible above the line connector jack, would fall open when a subscriber signaled the operator by hand-cranking the magneto on their telephone.

An audible click could be heard from the activating relay of the drop annunciator on the switchboard panel.

Other switchboard models illuminated an associated status lamp above the subscriber’s connector jack.

Early telephones used magneto generators and dry-cell batteries, and later models adopted a ‘common-battery’ system from the local telephone office.

In the 1940s, Winsted Telephone Co. used a common-battery system, which eliminated the need for individual dry cell batteries in each telephone and enabled automatic signaling without a user-generated ringing current.

When the phone’s receiver was removed from the switchhook, it completed a circuit and sent a signal to the switchboard.

My grandmother, father, or someone from Winsted who was employed to work the switchboard would see a lamp light or a metal cover drop over the corresponding subscriber line port, signaling that a call was coming in.

The switchboard operator would plug into the line using a patch cord, then connect the call to the requested number using another patch cord and flip a toggle switch to ring the calling party.

In 1947, the US introduced 86 numbering plan areas (area codes) as part of the original North American Numbering Plan Administration (NANPA).

AT&T established NANPA to promote direct-distance dialing and speed up long-distance calling without using an operator.

The same year, Winsted and many other central Minnesota towns were incorporated into the 612 area code.

In 1996, the western segment of the 612 area code, including Winsted, was split off due to escalating demand for phone numbers and reassigned into area code 320.

The 1948 Winsted Telephone Company directory, a double-sided, single-folded cardboard sheet, listed 293 subscriber names with their alphanumeric codes, but it did not include any street addresses.

Back then, a subscriber would lift the telephone receiver off the switchhook and ask the switchboard operator to connect them to the individual or business’s name, or the code from the directory.

Say a subscriber in 1948 wanted to call Glenard Gatz.

Mr. Gatz’s telephone party line code was “10 R 18.” The 10 stood for the line, and the R meant ring, 18, for ring 18.

The calling subscriber would tell the operator, “Connect me to Glenard Gatz,” or “ten, ring 18,” which directed the operator to use Mr. Gatz’s unique ringing pattern on the shared party line to make the connection.

I knew Glen Gatz. He operated the gas station on Second Street, just south of the Winsted Telephone Co., from the building where Al LeDoux previously operated the Phillip’s 66 gas station; I remember Mr. LeDoux, as well.

In the 1940s, Winsted rural telephone lines could serve up to 24 subscribers on a single party line, although eight to 12 subscribers per line was more common.

Those on the party line had to pay attention to the number of rings to figure out who was receiving the call.

I was told many folks on the party line would pick up their receivers to listen in no matter how many rings or to ask if the call was for them.

Brownies Cafe used a private business line, and its number was listed in the directory as “137.”

A subscriber would request either “137” or “Brownies Cafe,” and the switchboard operator would connect their call using a patch cord.

The Coast-To-Coast store’s telephone number was 66.

How many Winsted residents remember Brownies Cafe and the Coast-To-Coast store?

In 1949, Winsted Telephone Company installed a Wilcox Electric electromechanical automatic relay telephone exchange switching system, which allowed Winsted subscribers to use telephones with rotary dials to complete local phone calls without operator assistance.

The 1878 District Telephone Company’s telephone directory can be seen at the University of Connecticut digital archives:https://bit.ly/4hDw1cZ.

Today, most local telephone companies no longer publish printed directories; digital directories are now accessible online or through mobile apps.

Winsted directories from 1948, 1978, 1986, 1987, 1992, 1993, and 1994. 
Photo courtesy Mark Ollig.

YouTube: voice of a generation

@Mark Ollig

YouTube, started by three former PayPal employees, Chad Hurley, Jawed Karim, and Steve Chen, officially began Feb. 15, 2005, at 5:13 a.m. UTC (Coordinated Universal Time).

In San Mateo, CA, where YouTube was founded, this time difference translates to 9:13 p.m. PST (Pacific Standard Time) Feb. 14, 2005.

UTC is the global time standard unaffected by seasonal changes or time zones. PST, used in California, is UTC minus eight hours.

I obtained domain registration details for YouTube.com using the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) registration data lookup tool.

This tool now primarily uses the RDAP (Registration Data Access Protocol) database, which has replaced the older WHOIS protocol as of Jan. 28, 2025.

ICANN manages the global domain name system, which ensures that all internet-connected devices have unique addresses and that users can access websites using human-readable names like google.com, instead of complex numerical addresses.

Domain registration details can be accessed using ICANN’s registration data lookup tool at https://lookup.icann.org/en.

Be aware that some information may be restricted due to privacy regulations.

YouTube began its beta testing phase in May 2005 with a select number of users.

After months of beta testing and fine-tuning the platform, YouTube opened its online doors to the world Dec. 15, 2005.

Jawed Karim posted the first video ever uploaded to YouTube, “Me at the Zoo,” April 23, 2005.

In this 18-second video clip, Karim stands in front of an elephant exhibit at the San Diego Zoo, commenting on the animals, “really, really, really long trunks, and that’s cool.”

This historic YouTube video now has 347 million views, and you can watch it here: bit.ly/3Q0ef7w.

Sequoia Capital (an American venture capital firm) initially invested $3.5 million in YouTube Nov. 7, 2005.

In April 2006, YouTube raised an additional $8 million from Sequoia Capital and Artis Capital Management (an investment firm).

The $11.5 million accelerated YouTube’s growth by improving video features and attracting content creators.

By April 2006, YouTube had 35 million daily views, establishing it as the leading online video platform.

Just a year and a half after Karim’s video upload, YouTube was for sale, attracting interest from major companies, including Yahoo! Inc., Microsoft, and Google.

Google eventually secured YouTube’s acquisition, finalizing the deal Nov. 13, 2006, for $1.65 billion.

The deal reportedly took place at a Denny’s near YouTube’s headquarters, which made me wonder if they all ordered the Grand Slam breakfast.

Google CEO Eric Schmidt called the YouTube acquisition the “next step in the evolution of the internet.”

At the time, Google was operating its public video service, video.google.com, which it eventually phased out in 2011.

In 2024, 82% of businesses were using YouTube for video marketing.

YouTube accounted for 37% of all global mobile internet traffic as of December 2024.

As of January of this year, YouTube has 2.7 billion monthly active users worldwide.

Here is a list of the top ten countries with the most YouTube users:

India: 476 million.

United States: 238 million.

Brazil: 147 million.

Indonesia: 139 million.

Mexico: 84.2 million.

Japan: 79.4 million.

Russia: 78.8 million.

Germany: 65.7 million.

Vietnam: 63 million.

Philippines: 58.1 million.

Although YouTube is not officially blocked in Russia, its accessibility is significantly limited.

Today, YouTube hosts 8.5 billion videos, with more than 70% of their views coming from mobile devices.

Every minute, approximately 500 hours of new videos are uploaded, totaling 2.4 million each day.

Additionally, YouTube users watch more than a billion hours of content daily.

More than 100 million paying subscribers exist, including those using services like YouTube Premium (which eliminates commercials), YouTube Music, and YouTube Shorts (videos under 60 seconds).

Artificial intelligence (AI) is transforming YouTube video creation.

It enables tools that translate videos into multiple languages, allowing creators to connect with global audiences.

AI is transforming content creation on YouTube by generating videos from scripts.

The platform uses AI for features like auto-subtitling to improve accessibility and “Dream Screen.”

Dream Screen enables creators to generate custom backgrounds for their shorts using text prompts.

It acts like a virtual green screen, allowing users to create unique visual scenes without filming.

Additionally, AI algorithms recommend videos based on user interests, promoting personalized content recommendations.

In May 2007, YouTube introduced the YouTube Partner Program, enabling content creators to earn money from their videos through advertisements. Many content creators are earning significant income.

YouTube also added revenue-sharing models for shorts, super chats, and memberships.

Today, YouTube continues to be the leading platform for creators, but it faces several challenges, such as copyright enforcement, the rise of AI-generated deepfakes, misinformation, and ad-blocker policies.

New regulations, like the European Digital Services Act, are influencing how YouTube moderates its content.

YouTube’s estimated value was $31.7 billion in 2024.

Its value for this year is projected at $35 billion to $40 billion, which represents an increase of approximately 2,021.21% to 2,324.24% from Google’s initial 2005 $1.65 billion investment.

YouTube has been the voice of a generation for 20 years, and its influence will continue to shape how we interact with our world.

Google Maps celebrates 20th anniversary of public release

@Mark Ollig

It was 20 years ago today when Google Maps was publicly released.

In 2003, Lars and Jens Rasmussen, Noel Gordon, and Stephen Ma, the founders of Where 2 Technologies, developed Expedition, a standalone desktop mapping software application in Sydney, Australia.

While the exact programming language for Expedition isn’t known (at least I haven’t found it), it likely used C++ for its mapping software and Geographic Information Systems (GIS), which involves managing and analyzing location-based data.

Expedition, with its user-friendly interface, laid the groundwork for the future development of Google Maps.

Google acquired Where 2 Technologies in October of 2004, after a reportedly fast-paced three-week negotiation with Google’s co-founder, Larry Page.

Google quickly transitioned Expedition into a web application, paving the way for the launch of Google Maps Feb. 8, 2005, featuring zoomable maps, driving directions, and a search function.

A Fresno Bee newspaper article, published Feb. 9, 2005, stated, “Google Maps puts the company squarely in competition with Yahoo Inc. and America Online Inc.’s MapQuest, part of Time Warner, Inc.”

MapQuest, one of the first web-based mapping services, was launched in 1996.

In 2005, Google Maps used JavaScript for dynamic user interface (UI) elements, allowing users to pan (move the map view in any direction), zoom in and out, and interact with information windows and the search bar.

Clicking on a pin or icon on the map (often shaped like a teardrop or a flag) activates the interactive feature that displays location details, such as the name and address of a business.

This interactive feature is primarily powered by JavaScript using AJAX (Asynchronous JavaScript) and XML (Extensible Markup Language) for data exchange.

AJAX enables asynchronous updates, allowing Google Maps to retrieve and display new data in nearly real-time without refreshing the page, and enhances background updates and dynamic responses to user interactions.

In 2005, Google Maps likely used XML to exchange data between browsers and servers, including map tiles, business location details, points of interest, search results, and direction data.

At the time, XML was a standard format for data exchange in AJAX-based web applications.

HTML (HyperText Markup Language) was used for web elements such as the search bar and pop-up windows.

CSS (Cascading Style Sheets) handled the visual elements, including colors, fonts, and overall design.

I compiled a list of the milestone years in the evolution of Google Maps:

2005: Google launched Google Maps, featuring satellite imagery, zoomable maps, driving directions, and a search function.

2007: ‘Street view’ offered 360-degree street-level imagery.

2008: Public transit directions became available, as did the mobile app providing turn-by-turn navigation.

2009: Google Maps added walking and cycling directions.

2011: Google Maps introduced indoor maps for malls, airports, and stadiums.

2012: Offline Google Map usage without an internet connection became available.

2014: Real-time traffic updates with alternate routes were added.

2015: Google began integrating AI-powered personalized recommendations for dining and other attractions, which today remains a process of continuous development and improvement.

2016: Google integrated ride-hailing services like Uber and also improved its offline navigation.

2017: Real-time location sharing allowed users to share their location with others.

2018: Google Maps became linked with Google Assistant and Google Photos.

2019: Google’s ‘live view’ introduced using augmented reality to overlay turn-by-turn directions on a smartphone’s camera.

2023: ‘Immersive view,’ combining street view and aerial imagery, was launched, allowing users to explore cities and landmarks in a more realistic 3D virtual environment.

2024: At the Google I/O (Innovation in the Open) developers conference, the company announced new location-aware AR features for live view.

Although not yet available to the public, location-aware AR will enable more precise placement of virtual objects and provide richer information about landmarks, businesses, and points of interest by overlaying historical images or 3D models.

As with nearly everything else these days, Google Maps uses artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) to enhance accuracy and personalization.

AI analyzes satellite imagery and street view data to improve map updates by detecting roads, buildings, and landmarks.

ML forecasts traffic patterns, delays, and optimal routes using real-time and historical data, and provides personalized recommendations for restaurants and other businesses or activities based on user preferences and location history.

Google Maps also uses natural language processing (NLP) to understand human language.

Google Maps uses NLP to analyze reviews to gauge opinions and identify fake ones, interpret local search queries like “coffee near me,” and address user feedback on map issues and reviews.

Google Maps also employs neural radiance fields (NeRF), a relatively new AI technique that creates incredibly realistic 3D models from images.

NeRF technology enhances immersive view in Google Maps, allowing for more detailed and virtual explorations of places.

Google Maps depends on a robust telecom infrastructure, including 5G mobile networks, to support navigation, immersive view, and real-time features.

With low latency and high bandwidth, 5G is vital for delivering precise and reliable location data.

The internet backbone and CDNs (content delivery networks) ensure Google Maps’ global reach and efficient data distribution.

Location services in Google Maps depend on satellite GPS, GNSS (global navigation satellite systems), and terrestrial positioning methods like cellular and Wi-Fi triangulation to provide accurate location data.

Reflecting on the past, I, like many of you, remember the frustration of unfolding and refolding AAA paper maps that felt like working a jigsaw puzzle.

I’m glad we have Google Maps, and now it’s time to blow out those 20 candles!